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Abu Rayhan Muhammad bin Ahmad al-Biruni was born in 973 in Khwarezm, a region that corresponds to present-day Uzbekistan. He received his first education in scientific subjects from Abu Nasr Mansur, a member of the ruling family of the region. Abu Nasr Mansur was a distinguished mathematician and astronomer. He taught al-Biruni Euclidean geometry and Ptolemaic astronomy. One of the most important Muslim rulers of the 11th century, Mahmud of Ghazni, took al-Biruni with him on his travels to India. Al-Biruni lived in India between 1017 and 1030, and during this period he wrote his famous book Kitab al-Tahqiq Ma li’l-Hind.

Influenced by the works of Greek philosophers Aristotle, Archimedes, and Democritus, al-Biruni began his scientific studies at the age of 17. He calculated the altitude of the Sun and the longitude of cities. From the movements of the Sun, he determined when the seasons begin. He calculated the diameter of the Earth with a value very close to that accepted today. He became the founder of the science of geodesy. While in India, he argued that trigonometry should be considered a science independent of astronomy. He proposed using the radius as a unit in trigonometric functions.

Al-Biruni developed many instruments for astronomical and geographical measurements. Unfortunately, many of the measuring instruments he developed were lost over time. Only the pycnometer, the mechanical astrolabe, and some map projections have survived to the present day. Al-Biruni was also a very accomplished encyclopedist. In his book Al-Athar al-Baqiya ‘an al-Qurun al-Khaliya, he presented the calendar systems used in the Middle East and the Near East. By describing the early medieval sciences of India, he explained the foundations of mathematics, astronomy, and astrology. With his book Al-Qanun al-Mas‘udi, he wrote a detailed work on mathematical geography. In Istikhraj al-Awtar fi Da’ira, he determined the topography of Central Asia. In Kitab al-Jamahir fi Ma‘rifat al-Jawahir, he provided detailed information on more than 50 substances such as minerals, ores, metals, alloys, and porcelain. In this work, he showed the specific gravities of each substance, which help distinguish materials from one another. He listed the plants he studied throughout his life in Kitab al-Saydala and comprehensively explained which natural medicines are effective for which diseases.

Seven hundred years before Newton, al-Biruni put forward the first ideas about the theory of gravity, which Newton later proved mathematically. Six hundred years before Galileo, who confirmed through observations with telescopes that planets revolve around the Sun, al-Biruni defended the idea that the Earth rotates. To the question of why trees and stones do not fly off if the Earth is rotating, he answered that there is an attraction at the center and that everything falls toward the center of the Earth. He predicted that the North, South, East, and West meet at different points and that there is land beyond the seas (today’s America).

Al-Biruni passed away at the age of 75. He became a source of inspiration for scientists who came long after him, such as Newton, Torricelli, Copernicus, and Galileo. The UNESCO Courier magazine, published in 15 languages including Turkish, dedicated its 1974 issue to al-Biruni. It introduced al-Biruni as “a universal genius who lived in Central Asia a thousand years ago.”

Biruni’s Works

Al-Biruni’s works are still used as reference sources in the Western scientific world. The Turkish Historical Society dedicated its 68th issue to Biruni under the title Biruni’ye Armağan. In many countries around the world, symposiums and congresses were organized to commemorate Biruni, and postage stamps were issued. UNESCO’s Courier magazine, published in 25 languages, devoted its June 1974 issue to Biruni. Under the cover photograph, he was introduced with the words: “Biruni, the universal genius who lived in Central Asia a thousand years ago; Astronomer, Historian, Botanist, Pharmacology expert, Geologist, Poet, Thinker, Mathematician, Geographer, and Humanist.”

Biruni authored approximately 180 works in total.

The most famous of these are:

Al-Athar al-Baqiya ‘an al-Qurun al-Khaliya: Works remaining from past centuries.

Al-Qanun al-Mas‘udi: His greatest work. It includes innovations, discoveries, and inventions in many fields from astronomy to geography.

Kitab al-Tahqiq Ma li’l-Hind: Provides extensive information on the history, religion, science, and geography of India.

Tahdid Nihayat al-Amakin li Tashih Masafat al-Masakin: Limiting the ends of places to correct the distances between settlements. With this work, Biruni laid the foundations and first cornerstone of geodesy.

Kitab al-Jamahir fi Ma‘rifat al-Jawahir: A book on the knowledge of gems.

Kitab al-Tafhim fi Awa’il Sina‘at al-Tanjim: An Introduction to the Science of the Stars.

Kitab al-Saydala fi al-Tibb: Book of Pharmacy. He wrote the names of medicines and medicinal herbs with their equivalents in six languages.

Biruni’s Thoughts on Science

According to Biruni, the pleasure of knowledge, that is, the joy of researching truth and reality, is among the highest pleasures. On this matter, he states: “What is necessary and unavoidable for the scholar, that is, the servant of knowledge, is not necessarily to reach a sufficient level in all fields of science, but to make no distinction among the sciences and to give each its due. Because knowledge is beautiful and its pleasure is lasting. This pleasure continues throughout the research. When the research ends, the pleasure ends as well. A scholar should not look down upon the scholars who came before him; rather, he should approach their works with humility and benefit from them. In this way, he will reach the most accurate and solid knowledge and will stay away from flawed and erroneous information.”

For the advancement and development of science, the following are necessary:

Freedom of scientific thought must be ensured.

Scientific studies must be based on clear and sound methods.

Science must be purified from false ideas, magic, and superstitions.

Incentive measures should be taken to increase the pleasure, enthusiasm, and effort of true scientists.

All necessary material, social, and technical conditions must be prepared.

Science, scientific works, and scientists must be respected.

Efforts should be made to attract public interest in scientific subjects.

The state must immediately implement measures for the development of science.

In his studies in the field of human and spiritual sciences, Biruni stated: “Those who engage in these sciences must first cleanse their hearts of corrupt beliefs, bad habits, and obsessions. Bigotry, ego, ambition for rank and position do not befit a scholar. The path of knowledge is difficult but attainable. One must rely on the most authentic and solid knowledge and consult authoritative scholars to reveal truth.”

Throughout his life, Biruni authored nearly 180 works in various fields. The secret of Biruni’s genius and scientific success lies in his deep internalization of religious and scientific knowledge and his reflection of this understanding throughout his life.